University of Connecticut
Women's Studies Internship Program -- WS 261/262
Guide to Critical Thinking
The development of critical and analytical thinking is the key to the understanding and use of information. It is what allows us to discuss and argue points of opinion and points of fact. It is the basis of our formation of independent ideas. Once formed, ideas can be written about and integrated with both similar and contrasting information. Use the following criteria to inform your thinking.
Elements for Critical Thinking
(Adapted from Annual Editions of Sociology 93/94: Dushkin Publishing Group)
* Differentiating Between Fact and Opinion
* Recognizing and Evaluating Author Bias and Rhetoric
* Determining Cause and Effect Relationships
* Determining the Accuracy and Completeness of Information Presented
* Recognizing Logical Fallacies and Faulty Reasoning
* Comparing and Contrasting Information and Points of View
* Developing Inferential Skills
* Making Judgments and Drawing Logical Conclusions
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Differentiating Between Fact and Opinion
A fact is a statement that can be proven true by other verifiable facts. An opinion is a statement of a person's thoughts, feelings, and/or impressions. Use the following guidelines when trying to distinguish between fact and opinion:
What externally verifiable information is presented that makes this statement true or factual?
How does the author differentiate between the interpretation of information and the presentation of actual data?
What rules or techniques can be used to identify statements of fact? Of opinion?
Can a statement contain both fact and opinion?
Can some opinions be considered reliable and/or valuable sources of information? Why?
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Recognizing and Evaluating Author Bias and Rhetoric
Ask the following questions when trying to recognize author bias and rhetoric:
What qualifications does the author have for writing on this subject?
What are the qualifications of the individuals the author quotes?
When and where was this article first published?
Does this information affect the credibility of the article?
What do you think the author wants her/his readers to think or do?
What is the author's perspective?
What underlying beliefs and assumptions shape the presentation of information?
For what purpose was this written?
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Determining Cause and Effect Relationships
Through attentive reading, you may come to understand that one situation of determinable fact may generate a second, fundamentally related situation. Ask what affect "A" has on "B." What other factors may affect this relationship? The issue here is of determining factual data and then of determining its effect in the real world order. Be certain that you do not assume causality because two things happen to be related.
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Determining the Accuracy and Completeness of Information Presented
Once fact and opinion have been differentiated, author bias known, and a rudimentary understanding of cause and effect relationships examined, it must be determined if the information presented is complete and accurate. Is more information needed for you to form your own opinion?
When reading more than one source on a particular topic, you also have a chance to examine divergent opinions gleaned from the same data. Often data presented from different perspectives result in different conclusions. Questions that you might ask to help you determine the accuracy and completeness of information are:
What facts do all the readings on the topic use?
What important facts are used in some readings, but not in all of them?
What sources could be used to check the information presented in each article?
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Determining the Accuracy and Completeness of Information Presented
Critical thinking requires the ability to recognize faulty logic. Here are seven major examples of fallacies of reasoning that you should be able to recognize. Notice that several of them are variations of the criteria for critical thinking. The fallacies are:
1) Incorrect assumptions of cause/effect relationships. For example: Everyone who uses heroine has previously smoked marijuana, therefore, smoking marijuana leads to heroine use. The problem with this type of reasoning is that it assumes a cause and effect relationship without providing any evidence. Fact: The vast majority of marijuana smokers have never used heroine. Fact: Almost all heroine users have previously used toothpaste. (Chances are we will not see any "studies" that attempt to prove tooth-brushing leads to heroine use.)
2) Inaccurate or distorted use of the interpretation of numerical statistical information. For example: Lowering the speed limit to 55 results in fewer traffic fatalities. This may be true, but we don't know it unless we are provided with such information as the number of people using highways since the institution of such laws. If fewer people are on the roads, or if cars are now safer, or more people are using seat belts, lowering the speed limit may not be the full or accurate reason for fewer traffic fatalities.
3) Faulty analogy, comparison carried too far, or comparisons of things that have nothing in common. For example: Apples and oranges are both fruits and both grow on trees; therefore apples and oranges taste the same.
4) Oversimplification. Potentially relevant information is ignored in order to make a point. For example: The majority of registered voters in the United States are Democrats; therefore Democratic candidates will win every election.
5) Stereotyping: Using a set of assumptions and beliefs about the physical, behavioral, and/or psychological characteristics assigned to a particular group or class of people. For example: Latino people speak Spanish; therefore Spanish language advertising will appeal to all Latino people.
6) Ignoring the question. Digression, obfuscating, or similar techniques are used to avoid answering a question. For example: When asked if his health care proposal will provide universal coverage, a senator replies: I have always taken into consideration the needs of those I represent.
7) Faulty generalization: a judgment based on insufficient evidence. For example: some men are better at math than some women; therefore all men are better at math than all women.
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Comparing and Contrasting Information and Points of View
To compare and contrast it is helpful to have a variety of related material. Multiple readings allow you to identify differences and similarities among facts, opinions, purposes and points of view in a number of readings related to a single topic. This can be particularly helpful if you are studying the same or similar topics in several courses in different disciplines or if you are supplementing your assigned readings with outside sources (newspapers, news magazines, etc.) By comparing and contrasting, you can identify various approaches and draw your own conclusions more readily.
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Developing Inferential Skills
By reading a broad variety of material related to a single issue you can practice taking a line of argument from one article and applying it to another. In this way you will learn to question how information from one source can effect your understanding of facts and opinions from other sources.
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Making Judgments and Drawing Logical Conclusions
The purpose of education is not to simply repeat what you have heard or read. Making judgments and drawing your own logical conclusions requires using all of the previously examined critical thinking skills. The following questions may help you grasp, evaluate, integrate and better understand the information that is presented to you.
What are the conclusions drawn by the author of the article?
Do you agree or disagree with the author's conclusions?
What other conclusions are possible to draw from the same information?
What other information might be important to know before making any judgment of the value of this article?
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Women's Studies Internship Program -- WS 261/262
Marita McComiskey
mccomisk@uconnvm.uconn.edu
University of Connecticut
Women's Studies Program
422 Beach Hall, U-Box181
354 Mansfield Road, Storrs, CT 06269
Office - (860) 486-1133 ~~~~ Fax - (860) 486-4789
Last Updated: August, 1996
